From Chalkboards to AI: Dr. Linda Herrera Decodes the Century-Long War for Egypt’s Schools

An American social anthropologist explores how the classroom has become a modern battlefield for power, identity, and the struggle for the Egyptian mind.

The Battle for the Classroom: An Interview with Linda Herrera

For an entire century, Egyptian education has been an open battlefield. It is a space where the state and society clash over what should be taught and what is actually experienced within the classroom. In her book, Educating Egypt, American social anthropologist Linda Herrera offers a profound reading of the history of Egyptian education—not merely as a set of policies and curricula, but as a daily practice that reflects shifts in power, culture, and identity. She uncovers the hidden and overt battles fought both inside and outside school walls.

The book is built on decades of fieldwork, interviews, and oral histories. It traces how education has shaped the image of the “ideal citizen” and remained a tug-of-war between the state, teachers, families, and students, from the era of modern nation-building to the digital age.

In this dialogue, we sit down with Linda Herrera, Professor of Education Policy, Organisation, and Leadership at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. We discuss the intersections of education and power, the limits of state control, and the role of the school in shaping collective consciousness.

The Spark of Research

What drove you to choose Egyptian public education specifically as a research topic?

As an undergraduate at the American University in Cairo, I lived in a youth hostel downtown. My room overlooked the Al-Falaki School. Every day, I heard the students reciting the national anthem, which sparked a deep curiosity about what was happening inside those walls. Later, during my Master’s studies, that curiosity became an urgent need to understand the daily life of the Egyptian school. I spent an entire year at that school, living alongside teachers and students to capture the intricate details of their daily reality.

The Limits of State Control

Despite the state’s grip on education, you argue that its control has never been absolute. Who has competed with the state for influence?

I love studying education because it is an incredibly complex field where authority is multifaceted. It isn’t restricted to a single entity. You have state power, supra-state powers, and the authority of mothers and students. Furthermore, education has the power to shift culture across different social classes.

Inside an Egyptian school, you might find the influence of Islamist movements alongside the impact of foreign cultures in music or art. This is where anthropology provides the tools to understand how students develop from adolescence onward. Additionally, international organisations and foreign governments participate in policy reform through projects and loans. All these elements,the state, youth subcultures, social movements, and international actors, influence the system in unpredictable ways.

The Digital Shift

Do you believe technology has changed the nature of the conflict over education, or has it simply reproduced it in new forms?

Technology changes the profession of teaching in every era—from the pen and the book to social media and now Artificial Intelligence. As tools intervene, they reshape the nature of relationships, whether between students or between students and teachers. It has altered how people think, how they internalise information, and even political dynamics. My role is to understand how these rapid changes unfold.

You relied heavily on interviews and oral history. What did these daily practices reveal to you?

My writing on Egyptian education spans 30 years of research, some ethnographic, some policy-based, and some focused on digital education and social media.

The practices I observed show that education in Egypt changed rapidly due to mobile phones and the internet. In the early 90s, I went to school daily with the students. By 2000, their lives had changed so much that my research tools had to evolve too. With the rise of social media, I began studying student life through Facebook groups and WhatsApp.

Now, observations suggest that in cities like Cairo or Alexandria, many students no longer attend school regularly; classrooms are often empty. Teachers aren’t always present. Educational practices have migrated outside the school, especially in middle and high school. Overcrowding and the “shift system” (double sessions) have also drastically reduced actual instructional time.

Surprises and Challenges

After years of research, what surprised you most about the Egyptian relationship with education?

Many things, but most notably the staggering prevalence of private tutoring compared to other countries. I also noticed that the Thanaweya Amma (high school exit exam) phase is profoundly unhealthy,not just for students, but for mothers and the entire family unit. It is an immense economic burden that has persisted since the 90s, negatively impacting society as a whole.

Is what we see today a continuation of old struggles or the start of something new?

The problems today are different in scale. With 25 million students, the challenges grow daily due to population growth, a shortage of schools, and a lack of teachers. This puts the system under extreme pressure. On the flip side, there are positives, such as digital innovation and the Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB), which provides global resources and videos to all students.

Education is Political

You’ve mentioned that “politics overshadows education.” What do you mean by that?

There is no education outside of politics. Education shapes the citizen, who in turn possesses political consciousness. It is always influenced by politics because it is tied to the state’s economic and social priorities. Education and politics are two sides of the same coin.

In your writing, the classroom appears as a site of daily “clashes” between teacher, student, and parent. What has changed in this dynamic over the decades?

The mobile phone is the single biggest change of the last 30 years. Almost every student has one now, meaning parents are no longer as aware of their children’s lives as they once were. Previously, the landline was in the home, allowing for a degree of parental supervision. Now, adults are often unaware of what is actually happening in the youth’s digital world. This hasn’t just affected schools; it has changed the habits of society itself.

Regional Influence

Are there lessons the Global South can learn from the Egyptian experience?

For at least 75 years, Egypt was the primary influencer of education systems across the Arab and African world. In the last century, many Arab countries adopted Egyptian curricula and hired Egyptian teachers. More recently, Egypt has been a pioneer in digital transformation,such as the EKB and AI-integrated platforms like “Faheem.” Other countries are watching the Egyptian experiment closely to weigh the potential gains and losses of such rapid digitisation.

Can we speak of a single “school culture” in Egypt, or does it vary by location?

It is incredibly diverse. Consider the difference between a rural public school in the Delta, an Al-Azhar school in Upper Egypt, and a private language school in Cairo. The social learning patterns differ wildly.

However, they all share one thing: a reliance on high-stakes, “fate-determining” exams. Consequently, almost all students share the experience of private tutoring. And because the core curriculum is unified (outside of international schools), most Egyptians share a common academic knowledge base regarding history, culture, and religion,even if they don’t necessarily interpret those subjects in the same way.

Finally, has your view of “educational reform” changed after writing this book?

No, because my work is rooted in understanding what reform means, why it begins, and the context from which it springs. I always view reform through its economic and political foundations; they are inseparable.